You ask me in yours of the 19th instant two questions:

1. Have the supposed razors been forted in the Felsina Necropolis?

2. If so, what objects accompanied them, or, to be more precise, did these implements occur together with pottery and bronzes of the primitive type, as, for example, those of Villanova, or were they discovered with painted pottery and historical subjects in black and red?

Before answering you, allow me to submit an outline of my discoveries in the Certosa diggings (1869).

I first found the four groups, numbering more than 400 sepulchres; the great series of figured pottery, black and red; the unique bronze SITVLA; the many‑figured STELAE, and the first specimen of Etruscan writing. The Certosa is, therefore, one great period in the life of FELSINA, prince of Etruria.

But, as was pointed out in my report of October 2, 1871, at the opening of the Museo Civico, the Certosa finds no longer form the isolated discovery from which I had deduced that, between our old monastery and Bologna, ran

a highway, with tombs grouped to the right and to the left, showing several and successive epochs ‑‑ in fact, the development of Felsinean life. It appeared to me certain that the earlier inhabitants would have pushed forward their cemeteries from the limits of population, which, as my discoveries in the Strada Pratello prove, represents a part of the modern city; and this, too, not only westward, but to the other cardinal points. Evidently the citizens, increasing in numbers and subject to social and political changes, would deposit their dead in several and distinct groups along the road, at increased distances of a hundred yards or so; sometimes above, at other times around, those which preceded them. And therefore I expected to find at least ten roadside groups between the two extreme points, Bologna and the Certosa.

The fact of eight such groups coming to light have proved my conjecture to be correct. Besides the four in the Certosa proper, 1869, I discovered to the eastward ‑‑ that is, in the direction of FELSINA ‑‑ two more, below the Arnoaldi property (end of September 1971); a seventh, distributed under the Arnoaldi‑Tagliavini farms and the Certosa lane; and, finally, an eighth (mid August 1872), in the Benacci estate.

The Tagliavini find demanded fresh researches in the contiguous Arnoaldi property, which presently yielded another group. The first, of thirty six sepulchres, produced very few figured vases, with red pottery, FIBVLAE of bronze and silver, and the remains of two cists. There were some sculptured STELAE, far inferior in splendour to those of the Certosa, but two had an especial value, on account of their Etruscan inscriptions. This group, therefore, has the characteristics, without, however, the importance, of the four which compose the Certosa find.

The sixth group (Tagliavini property) produced, as

firstfruits, four sepulchres, containing three skeletons, with brown and red earthenware, and a DOLIVM worked in bands: its contents were burnt bones, silver FIBVLAE, and a bronze knife. But it was a spark that kindled a mighty flame. The adjacent Arnoaldi diggings, begun in early December 1872, were continued till the end of June 1874, and have already yielded 150 tombs. Here we gathered, besides the brown and ruddy earthenware, a rich harvest of pottery with graffiti geometrically worked in a large and grandiose manner, and not wanting the usual ducks, the doves, and even the monkey; a great variety of bronzes, such as FIBVLAE, and utensils, SITVLAE, cups, two cists in repoussé work with bands and points, and, finally, a sculptured STELA with rosetted crosses, resembling that of Pisaro, consequently, those of the Certosa.

During last summer (1874), the lane which separates the Arnoaldi and Tagliavini diggings, explored by me at the expense of the municipality, produced eighty most important tombs; and the axis of the line apparently corresponds with that of the cemetery, which extends on both sides under the two farms. Here, more remarkably than in Number 2, Arnoaldi group, emerged the luminous epoch of Villanova, far richer sepulchres, proved by the engraved potteries and bronze utensils; two banded cists, two others of repoussé work with bands and points, and two with representations of quadrupeds like the far famed SITVLA of the Certosa, not to speak of the number and beauty of the SITVLAE, the large bronze pins, the bronze vases, and the utensils whose forms show remarkable novelties.

The other Arnoaldi group (our Number 7) has yielded hitherto sixteen sepulchres, identical with those of the Certosa; a large OXYBAPHON, a few other red figured potteries, also in the style of what we found at the

monastery; a STELA and the fragment of a second with a bit of inscription.

But the history of FELSINA returns to its origin in the vast Benacci group, discovered in September 1873. Here 300 tombs show four epochs distinctly marked by their stratification, namely: ‑‑ 1. An age preceding Villanova (Pelasgian?); 2. The first era of Villanova (Umbrian?); 3. Gallic; and 4. Roman.

The pre Villanovan epoch appears splendidly in the five sepulchres, which I will presently describe; in earthenware with peculiar graffiti, and in special bronzes for utensils, arms, and ornaments.

And now comes the first Villanovan age, with some engraved potteries and others whose type has not hitherto appeared; with an extraordinary quantity and variety of FIBVLAE, ARMILLAE, and bronze pins; with bronze vases, amongst which six are banded, some are worked with repoussé points, and one cist, festooned in repoussé, bears little geese like those stamped on the earthenware. The so called TINTINNABVLA yielded by Villanova here appeared in greater numbers; they are evidently not bells, but articles of toilette.

The Gallic epoch has offered various very long swordblades, like those from the TVMVLI of Magny‑Lambert; and bronze vases resembling the discoveries of Upper Alsace (Aus'm Werth der Grabfund von Wald‑Algesheim; Bonn, 1870). For our present purpose I need not note the Roman age.

Here, then, are the successive peoples and life periods of FELSINA ‑‑ Pelasgic, Umbrian, Etruscan, Gallic, and, finally, Roman. The lower Benacci group shows the pre Villanovan (Pelasgic?) and the early Villanovan age. The Arnoaldi‑Tagliavini and the Certosa lane record the luminous epoch of the later Villanova; the second stratum proves the influence of the coming age, gradually

deteriorating in the first Arnoaldi group. In the third it again rises, and it culminates in the four Certosa groups.

After this sketch of my discoveries, I proceed to your questions concerning the so called razors; and let me at once state that the obtuseness of the edge, and the small size of the articles, forbid our attributing such use to them. [Footnote 1: Note By The Translator ‑‑ After seeing the Chinese blades, little hatchets, I cannot attach importance to either of these objections.]

These lunated articles were found only in one part of the Certosa, the Campo degli Spedali, scattered over the subsurface; none appeared in seven of the groups: the four Certosan (proper), the two Arnoaldi; and the Arnoaldi‑Tagliavini and Certosa lane. The Benacci diggings, however, yielded razors in nine tombs, of which five belonged to the pre Villanovan (Pelasgic?), and four to the early Villanovan epochs. The following is a succinct description of the articles and their accompaniments.

Of the four early Villanovan tombs which yielded razors, Number 1 was a square fosse (0∙70 metre x 0∙70 metre), containing the large cinerary urn of Villanovan type, with burnt bones, covered with its cup; to the northwards were some small brown and red pots, one of them engraved round the rim with a zigzag ornament, and with horizontal channellings from midbelly to bottom. A three‑barbed FIBVLA of bronze and the razor were found with the bones.

Number 2 fosse was somewhat larger (1∙00 metre x 1∙00 metre); to the east stood the great ossuary (same type), with engraved FIBVLAE, pins, and fragments of ARMILLAE, all of bronze; westward lay some smaller brown pots; and a terracotta cist with bands still stood upright. The razor lay flat in the middle of the western side. It is not plain, each face has three zones cut parallel with the blade‑back;

the uppermost is straight, the central is a zigzag, and the lowest is in short and parallel perpendicular lines.

Number 3 fosse was of the same size as the second. The ossuary (same type) was subtended northwards and southwards by brown and reddish pots; there were only traces of bronze FIBVLAE, and amongst the burnt bones lay the razor engraved with parallel lines along the back.

Number 4 was a little smaller (0∙90 metre x 0∙90 metre), than the two latter. The ossuary had its cup cover, and near its mouth was a three‑barred FIBVLA like that of number 1; westward lay a few small vases, of which one was zigzagged in relief at the rim. Upon the burnt bones of the ossuary stood a few engraved FIBVLAE and some bronze pins. Among the bones was the razor, much oxidised.

In these four cases, then, the razor is always inside the ossuary; it is accompanied by FIBVLAE, bronze pins, brown and red earthenware, and a few engraved potteries. It remains to consider it in connection with the pre Villanovan (Pelasgic?) age.

Number 1 tomb was walled with slabs of molassa or yellowish sandstone; the inside (1 metre x 0∙70 metre) showed a cup covered ossuary, engraved after the Grecian fashion. Upon the bones lay the razor, together with certain twisted bronze FIBVLAE of novel form, and the last found was a very long pin, also of bronze.

Number 2, similarly walled, showed the great ossuary opening to the northwest. It was similarly worked, and covered with a cup, also engraved, upon which lay an amber‑headed bronze pin. With the bones were fragments of FIBVLAE, armlets, and a bronze LIGVLA; at the southern angle lay three small bronze rings; and to the north, on a level with the belly of the ossuary, stood the razor, worked with wolves' teeth near the blade‑back.

Number 3 was stopped by a large pebble, under which,

with its mouth opening south, lay the main ossuary, cup‑covered, and adorned under the lips and around the belly with Grecian tracery in white. Beneath this urn appeared a pin, and to the east a small bronze celt with cylindrical socket (a bossolo cilindrico). Little rings of the same metal lay below it. Mixed with the bones was a LIGVLA, broken into very small bits, and two FIBVLAE with amber; finally, at the bottom of the urn the razor lay flat, worked like that of number 2.

Number 4 tomb resembled numbers 1 and 2, but it was much richer. A rectangle of 1∙00 metre x 0∙70 metre, its sandstone revetment formed a fallen cover for the ossuary, whose mouth was turned southwards. Both it and the cup had large graffiti in the Greek style. Among the bones were two large bridlebits of bronze, with their respective belongings; [footnote 1: Translator's Note ‑‑ in the original la relativa bardatura, which means the whole harness or equipment of the horse ‑‑ evidently not intended here] a pin, and engraved FIBVLAE. Near the rim was a little bronze paalstab (axe), like those of Scandinavian type, and then the razor.

Number 5 was covered with a large revetment of sandstone. Underneath it stood the cup‑covered ossuary turned southwards. The burnt remains were accompanied by a long cylinder of bone, worked in straight lines after the Greek fashion. To westward lay flat a very large and peculiar paalstab, whose faces were engraved also after the Greek way, with triple zones in zigzag and with toothed lines. On the south was an unusually long pin with amber under the head, and near it lay the razor. The latter is peculiar in its greater size, in its shape, and in its ornamentation. It is especially noteworthy for the part between the back and the handle; and each face is engraved near the blade‑back with Grecian ornaments like the paalstab, the lowest being a zigzag zone.

Such, then, are the five pre Villanovan (Pelasgic?) sepulchres containing the razors. The principal accompanying objects are, as I have shown, urns with large graffiti, celts, paalstabs, FIBVLAE, and pins differing from those of the early Villanovan era.

Under different circumstances the razors were also found in three tombs explored by my excellent colleague, Avvocato Arsenio Crespellani (see his paper Di un Sepolcreto pre‑romano a Savignano sul Panaro; Modena, 1874). He discovered one adorned with wolves' teeth in a sepulchre which has all the characteristics of the Benacci group, of older date than the Villanovan; and the two others in tombs which belong to the first Villanovan epoch.